Environmental trade-offs of biogas utilization pathways: a global life cycle synthesis with policy-relevant insights for Southeast Asia
The systematic review synthesised 28 peer-reviewed life-cycle assessment studies published from 2015 to 2025. It compared direct combustion, combined heat and power, biomethane upgrading, transport use and carbon capture and utilisation. Results were standardised to one megajoule of useful energy and assessed across climate, eutrophication, acidification, particulate matter and resource-use indicators.